What Is a Maxim

Before even knowing what a maxim is, there’s a good chance you’re a collector of them without realizing it, and you’re probably using them more than you know. Theyre often the words of wisdom on refrigerator magnets, coffee mugs, T-shirts, and greeting cards. Sometimes you’ll find them displayed in a subway station, at a gym, or in a hospital waiting room. If you’re listening to a motivational speaker, you’ll most likely catch a few in his or her speech. And you can have fun trying to find them in literature, movies, and television shows too. When you’re writing or speaking, maxims are an easy way for adding spice and color to what you have to say.   Definition A maxim (MAKS-im) is a compact expression of a general truth or rule of conduct. Also known as a  proverb, saying, adage, sententia, and precept. In classical rhetoric, maxims were regarded as formulaic ways of conveying the common wisdom of the people. Aristotle observed that a maxim may serve as the premise or conclusion of an enthymeme. Etymology The word maxim comes from the Latin word  meaning â€Å"greatest.† Examples and Observations Never trust a man who says,  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Trust me.†You’re either part of the solution or part of the problem.â€Å"Nothing ever goes away.†(Barry Commoner, American ecologist)Sherlock Holmes: Would you stand up?Dr. John Watson: Whatever for?Sherlock Holmes: It is an old maxim of mine that when you have eliminated the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth. Therefore, you are sitting on my pipe.(John Neville and Donald Houston in â€Å"A Study in Terror,†Ã‚  1965)â€Å"Think sideways!†(Edward De Bono, â€Å"The Use of Lateral Thinking,† 1967)â€Å"Start with a phenomenon that nearly everyone both accepts and considers well understood—‘hot hands’ in basketball. Now and then, someone just gets hot, and can’t be stopped. Basket after basket falls in—or out as with ‘cold hands,’ when a man can’t buy a bucket for love or money (choose your clichà ©). The reason for thi s phenomenon is clear enough; it lies embodied in the maxim: ‘When youre hot, you’re hot; and when youre not, youre not.’†Ã¢â‚¬â€¹(Stephen Jay Gould, â€Å"The Streak of Streaks,†Ã‚  1988)â€Å"Everybody knows about hot hands. The only problem is that no such phenomenon exists.†(Stephen Jay Gould, â€Å"The Streak of Streaks,†Ã‚  1988)â€Å"Almost every wise saying has an opposite one, no less wise, to balance it.†(George Santayana) Maxims as Tools of Argument in Classical Rhetoric In the Rhetoric, Book II, Chapter 21,  Aristotle treated maxims as a prelude to his discussion of the enthymeme, because, as he observed, maxims often constitute one of the premises of a syllogistic argument. For instance, in an argument about financial matters, one can imagine a disputant saying, A fool and his money are soon parted. The full argument suggested by this proverb would run something like this: A fool and his money are soon parted.John Smith is undeniably a fool when it comes to money matters.John Smith is sure to lose out on his investment. The value of maxims, according to Aristotle, is that they invest a discourse with ‘moral character,’ with that ethical appeal so important in persuading others. Because maxims touch upon universal truths about life, they win ready assent from the audience.†(Edward P.J. Corbett and Robert J. Connors, â€Å"​Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student.† Oxford University Press, 1999)â€Å"The orator, says [Giambattista]  Vico, ‘speaks in maxims.’ But he must produce these maxims offhandedly; as practical matters always require immediate solutions, he does not have the time of the dialectician. He must be able to quickly think in enthymemic terms.†Ã¢â‚¬â€¹(Catalina Gonzalez, â€Å"Vico’s  Institutiones Oratoriae.†   Ã¢â‚¬Å"Rhetorical Agendas,† ed. by  Ã‚  Patricia Bizzell. Lawrence Erlbaum, 2006)   â€Å"Too many cooks spoil the broth† â€Å"‘Too many cooks spoil the broth’—so goes a proverb that is as familiar to most Americans as its meaning. The Iranians expressed the same thought with different words: ‘Two midwives will deliver a baby with a crooked head.’ So do the Italians: ‘With so many roosters crowing, the sun never comes up.’ The Russians: ‘With seven nurses, the child goes blind.’ And the Japanese: ‘Too many boatmen run the boat up to the top of the mountain.’†(â€Å"Language: The Wild Flower of Thought.†Ã‚  Time, March 14, 1969)â€Å"Having passed through several different studios over its 15-year development, sci-fi comedy ‘Duke Nukem Forever’ sets a new precedent for how too many cooks really can get busy with the spoilage.†(Stuart Richardson, â€Å"Duke Nukem Forever‚Review.† The Guardian, June 17, 2011)â€Å"Does the adage too many cooks spoil the broth  apply to fiction? Readers of the novel ‘No Rest For The Dead’  will soon find out. The 26 authors invited to take part in the series have combined sales of tens of millions of books.†Ã¢â‚¬â€¹(â€Å"No Rest For The Dead: New Crime Thriller Co-Written by 26 Authors.†Ã‚  The Telegraph, July 5, 2011) The Lighter Side of Maxims Dr. Frasier Crane: There’s an old real estate maxim that says the three most important things when looking for a property are location, location, location.Woody Boyd:  That’s just one thing.Dr. Frasier Crane: That’s the point, Woody.Woody Boyd:  What, that real estate people are stupid?Dr. Frasier Crane: No, that location is the one most important thing in real estate.Woody Boyd: Then why do they say that it’s three things?Dr. Frasier Crane: Because real estate people are stupid.(Kelsey Grammer and Woody Harrelson in â€Å"A Bar Is Born.†Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Cheers,† 1989)

Feminist View on the Great Gatsby Essay - 1070 Words

Susan B. Anthony once said â€Å"The true republic: Men, their rights and nothing more; Women, their rights and nothing less.† This is her point of view on the way women were thought of during the 1920s. She recognizes the large gap between women and men’s rights. During this time though, many changes had began. Women just got the right to vote, therefore gaining more independence of their own which they did not always know how to use. This is also when the trend of a flapper began. Views changed from politics to social lives, hem lines were raised, and risks were taken. The confusion of this time for most men is easily seen in The Great Gatsby. In The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald, women are portrayed as a minor role†¦show more content†¦She is shown as selfish and not trustworthy. Nick Carraway, the narrator, realizes this also. While running into Tom after Gatsby’s death he makes the comment â€Å"you know what I think of you† (179). This is Nick referring to his anger towards tom and daisy for betraying Gatsby. Daisy was supposedly in love with Gatsby, until she killed Myrtle and knew that Tom could keep her from getting caught. She left Gatsby behind in the dust, and let Tom blame him for the murder of Myrtle. Myrtle, before her death, is another example of being unfaithful. She lies to Wilson regularly about going into town with Tom, she is happier with Tom. If it was not for the inconvenience of getting a divorce she possibly would have. Instead though, she decides to build a web of lies and live by them. Wilson does not even realize he is being betrayed until he finds the expensive dog collar. Myrtle â€Å"trie[s] to tell [him] something funny about it, but [he] knew it was something funny† (158). He came to the conclusion then that he had always been suspicious of; myrtle had not been faithful to him. Women were thought of as deceiving during this time period, as it was reflected into The Great Gatsby. The way that men thought of women during the 1920s is shown all throughout this novel. The way men saw them, the way they saw themselves, and the way they were struggling toShow MoreRelatedThe Feminist Criticism Of The Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald1697 Words   |  7 PagesFrom the feminist criticism, everything seems somehow related to everything else. Feminism is involved in any given field cannot be cordoned off. Marxism, however, ignored the position of women which is strange as its key concepts are the â€Å"struggle between social classes and the blinding effects of ideology†, it might have been employed to analyze the social situation of women. Feminism saw clearly that the widespread of negative stereotyping of women in literature and film constituted a formidableRead MoreThe Changes in the Role of Women throughout Different Eras1381 Words   |  6 Pagesstronger social position in a world dominated by man through acquiring the freedom to express their sexuality, expand feminist ideas, and provide stability for economic equality. This revolution is evident in The Crucible, The Yellow Wallpaper, and The Great Gatsby. In the Puritan era, women cannot express themselves or have any rights or equality amongst men. Men in Puritan times do not view women as equals, consequently giving women less rights than men. Giles Corey from The Crucible by Arthur MillerRead MoreEssay about How can Gatsby be called Great1327 Words   |  6 PagesFitzgerald’s novel ‘The Great Gatsby’ can be seen as incredibly ironic: not only can the ‘greatness’ of the eponymous character be vehemently contested, he is not even named ‘Gatsby’. 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This novel is a timeless piece of literature that is still relevant to AmericanRead MoreThe Evolution of Women in Literature947 Words   |  4 Pages In Scott Fitzgerald’s writing, Great Gatsby, the reader will see his portrayal of the â€Å"roaring twenties† in America witch shows the downfall society and the loss of morality in the public. Fitzgerald’s fictional characters all help further show this breakdown in society through the eyes of our narriortor Nick Carraway. Nick gives the reader a firsthand look into the personal lives of some of New York’s wealthiest citizens Daisy and Tom Buchanan, and Jay Gatsby. The women of the time were just startingRead MoreOm and M2457 Words   |  10 Pagesnovels comment and criticise on the societies which they are set in.  Ã‚      We are introduced to both novels in the 1920s elite society where both authors; Waugh and Fitzgerald are from an upper class society. Fitzgerald cultivates the character Jay Gatsby who we perceive purely from Nick who is an onlooker throughout the novella. Readers interpret Gatsby’s social structure as a triangle and we learn to commiserate him whereas Waugh invents the character Paul Pennyfeather who is a naà ¯ve, passive characterRead MoreThe Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald Essay2486 Words   |  10 PagesThe great Gatsby shows an American culture in a certain time period. F. Scott Fitzgerald fits the modernist movement, as he writes about the horrid truth about desire and hope and how the necessity for material gain can destroy the value of life. He focuses on the culture of the twentieth century, including the growing of urbanization using the idea of self-interest through his literature. He describes the modern concept through reflecting on the flourishing middle an d upper classes. The great GatsbyRead MoreThe Great Gatsby, no important woman character?1754 Words   |  8 PagesIn the novel The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald, Daisy Buchanan is an important woman character, but only in relation to Jay Gatsby’s dream. Ever since Gatsby had come back from the army, he had longed to have Daisy back in his life, and so everything he did and built up was in some way for her (e.g. his house and the parties he threw). Nick says: â€Å"He talked a lot about the past, and I gathered that he wanted to recover something, some idea of himself perhaps, that had gone into loving Daisy†Read MoreThe 1920S Were An Influential Era In American History For1413 Words   |  6 Pagesnovel The Great Gatsby, Fitzgerald uses the historical context of the stereotypical â€Å"new woman† to create his female characters. Each woman exemplifies a different type of woman in the 1920s, differentiated by their social class, physical appearances, and personalities. Daisy was the ignorant, irresponsible, pampered young lady. Jordan was the mysterious, unmarried, rebellious woman. Myrtle was nothing more than a sex object, a prize to be won for the satisfaction of men. The Great Gatsby appears toRead MoreThe Great Gatsby And The Handmaid s Tale : Crushing Dreams2951 Words   |  12 PagesRilye Fries Mrs. Tucker English 12 hour 3 13 March 2015 The Great Gatsby and The Handmaid’s Tale: Crushing Dreams The Great Gatsby is regarded as a classic novel for its sad and hopeful story of Jay Gatsby and his quest to obtain Daisy Buchanan, his first love. Margaret Atwood’s The Handmaid s Tale is regarded as a more modern day classic, taking place in a dystopian society where women are regarded as sex slaves and the Bible is law. Both F. Scott Fitzgerald and Margaret Atwood, despite having

Analyze the causes of the Rwandan Genocide Free Essays

string(65) " asserting that they want â€Å"to promote a democratic revolution\." Introduction The term ‘Genocide’ is derived from the combination of the Greek word ‘genos’ (race) with the Latin word ‘cide’ (killing) which was created by Raphael Lemkin who was a Polish writer and attorney in 1941. The definition of the tern ‘Genocide’ according to the UN Convention on Genocide of December 1948 states â€Å"any of the following acts committed with the intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group, as such†: this incorporates the following; such as the killing members of a group, causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group, deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring-about its physical destruction in whole or in part or imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group and forcibly transferring children of the group to another group. http://www. We will write a custom essay sample on Analyze the causes of the Rwandan Genocide or any similar topic only for you Order Now bbc.co.uk/news/world-11108059 The Twentieth Century witnessed an unprecedented numbers of genocides. However the most chilling of them all was the Rwandan genocide because it was the most rapidly executed state sponsored mass murder and it could have been prevented. Between April and July of 1994, an estimated eight hundred thousand people were murdered in Rwanda, in what was eventually called a genocide. It was the genocide of the Tutsi by the ruling class Hutus. There were many key contributing elements that culminated in the the execution of a targeted race on such a large scale. The source of the cause of the genocide was a result of ethnic tension between the Hutus and Tutsi race. Historical factors One of the main causes of the genocide in Rwanda can be traced back to the period of colonial rule over Rwanda, where numerous policies of the imperialists left the Rwandan society divided with tensions searing among its population during and after this colonial period. Rwanda was originally ruled by the German empire but later by the Germans after World War I until the independence of Rwanda in 1962. During the Belgian rule, the ruling Belgians had initially favored the Tutsi minority and used them to rule over Rwanda indirectly. For years the Tutsi minority had power and control, this is because the Europeans saw the Hutu as inferior, this in turn saw the systematic oppression of this group. This had lasted until the independence of Rwanda in 1962. (Destexhe, 1995) For 60 years, the colonial policies of divide and conquer strategy to rule over Rwanda, caused fierce resentment. Before the colonization, according to Melvern (2000:11) the two ethnic groups, the tutsis and hutus had shared various social commonalities, he pointed out that they shared the same language, way of life, existed and lived alongside each other in the same community , they were said to have also intermarried. However, the Belgian implemented various reforms on its colony Rwanda during the period from the mid-1920s to the mid-1930s, where they had determined a crucial distinction between the natives, they claimed the Hutus to be the indigenous Bantu and Tutsis as alien Hamites. As the Europeans imperialist came to Africa they developed admiration for the ruling Tutsi group. They were convinced that the success of the Tutsi political and economic sectors revealed their superiority. Europeans concluded that since the Tutsi ruled over the Hutu and Twa, they were also like them. (Destexhe, 1995) This view held by the colonialists of one race superior above another, was a major cause for the subsequent genocide. The Europeans deduced the Tutsi race were not really sub-Saharan Africans, instead they were those who were likely from the ancient Egyptians lineage. This view led to the creation of a a disturbing and controversial fallacy, the colonialists spread the ‘Hamitic myth’, which supported the view the â€Å"Tutsi and everything humanly superior in Central Africa came from ancient Egypt or Abyssinia†. Melvern argued that this Hamitic theory, â€Å"explained away every sign of civilisation in tropical Africa as a foreign import.† The fabrication of the Hutu and Tutsi races were based on categories of different socio-economic positions within Rwandan society. In order to categorise them the Belgians adopted a measure to divide the people of rwanda, they used ownership of cows as the key criteria for deciding which group an individual belonged to. Those with 10 or more cows were Tutsi along with all their descendants in the male line and those with less were regarded as a Hutu. Although it has been argued by some the Belgians did not arbitrarily cook up the Hutu/Tutsi distinction, but what they did was to take an existing socio-political distinction and radicalize it. this also explains that ‘Rwanda’s bloodbath was not tribal. It was rather a distinctly modern tragedy, a degenerated class conflict, according to Pottier (2002:9), The 60 years of such prejudicial fabrications might have ‘ended by inflating the Tutsi cultural ego inordinately and crushing Hutu feelings until they coalesced into an aggressively resentful inferiority complex’. this was an important factor, in-regard-to the causes of the genocide of the Tutsis in Rwanda because of the resentment that had boiled up among the Hutu populations over the colonial preference of the Tutsis. The colonization of Rwanda played a major role in the contributing elements that lead to the genocide, for example, the policies implemented by the Belgians saw the adoption of identity cards, which highlighted the ethnic background a person; whether they were a Tutsi, Hutu or Twa. This had the effect of attaching a sub national identity to all Rwandans and dividing the nation into categories. This lead to, a perception of a hierarchy among these race groups, which further added to the resentment, which added to the bitterness; this would later help to fuel the massacre at an alarming rate. However, during the late 1950s Rwanda witnessed a shift in colonial attitude, the Belgian rulers changed their â€Å"policy of discrimination in the to favour the Hutu†, as they had realised that dominance of the Hutu majority was almost certain. Therefore colonial empire took their side and , asserting that they want â€Å"to promote a democratic revolution. You read "Analyze the causes of the Rwandan Genocide" in category "Essay examples"† 1957 saw a significant development, that highlighted the level of division that was created, in that, a group of nine Hutu intellectuals had published the Hutu Manifesto, which protested against the political, economic and educational dominance of the Tutsi ‘race’ and set apart the Tutsi race as foreign aggressors, it called for Hutu in all discipline, also it insisted that identity cards were to remain in order to keep track of the ‘race monopoly.’ However, theTutsi elite had refuted this Hutu Manifesto and held the colonial rulers for the racial problems within the country. Rwanda gained independence on 1 July 1962. After independence was declared, The Hutus secured control. This was a major turning point in Rwanda, as this would lead to actions adopted by this Hutu government that would marginalise the Tutsi minority. As the Hutus utilised this moment to weaken the Tutsis by using â€Å"false propaganda† of the Tutsis having â€Å"usurped Hutus in secondary and higher teaching institutions and in employment, public administration, and the private sector to advance their cause.† The measures employed by the Hutus against the Tutsis was more than spreading propaganda, they used this method to sanction the killing and isolation of the Tutsi race by prohibiting them from teaching themselves and from playing a role in the government, most crucially from the military. This led to the displacement of many Tutsis trying to avoid these measures. The tables had now turned on the once ruling Tutsi people, clearly bringing to light the discriminatio n faced by them. This was a significant aspect in the years leading up to the genocide. Environmental factor Environmental factors have also played a key role in causing and shaping the genocide. â€Å"Rwanda, is a small country whose population increased from 1 887 000 in 1948 to more than 7 500 000 in 1992†. In other words, this rapid rise population within a small land area made it densely populated which placed pressures on both the land and population. It has been argued that Rwanda’s overpopulation and poverty problems undoubtedly set in place increasing racial antagonism. The increasing population and subset amongst family members increased, the amount of available land for subsistence purposes decreased drastically, leaving many landless and unemployed. As a result, people were easily encouraged by political leaders to kill the Tutsis so that they could take possession of their land. Therefore it is clear to see that population growth and land scarcity was a major cause for the genocide in Rwanda. Economic Economic factors have also conditioned and exacerbated the effects the magnitude of the massacre in Rwanda. There are four key socio- economic factors include the following; the price of coffee which fell suddenly along with the 1989 currency devaluation and the subsequent rapid inflation after 1990; the structural adjustment programme combined with a drought in the southern regions which turned into a famine; the 1990 war in the north that had exhausted government funds, the war also created huge refugee camps in the north of rwanda, finally the ‘paradox of democratisation in Africa’ which caused opposition to the already embattled government. As Rwanda faced a serious food–people–land disproportion. In the first half of the twentieth century, severe food insufficiency were linked with the death and migration of many of the Rwandan population to neighbouring lands. From 1928–1929 Rwanda suffered from famine and famine of 1943 took the life of approximately â€Å"30,000 people and forced over 100,000 to leave for the Belgian Congo and Uganda.† In the years leading to the genocide, there had been a noticeable slump in the â€Å"availability of kilocalories per person per day and overall farm production.† Famines occurred in the late 1980s and early 1990s in several parts of the country. Emergency sources of food in neighbouring countries also were limited. Another contributing factor that made worse the already dire situation in Rwanda that lead to the genocide was that for two decades before the 1994 mass murder, was ‘land acquisition’ carried out by military personnels and persons with influence with political connections, this led to the formation of a rural elite. However, â€Å"only 17 per cent of all Rwandan farms exceeded one hectare, they accounted for 43 per cent of Rwanda’s total arable land.† For most part of the land in Rwanda, the typical family had just about half a hectare of land plot. What makes clear, that environmental and economic elements, was a route cause for the genocide in Rwanda in 1994 was that before all the problems with population and food these various race groups had to some extent lived together by comparison peacefully before the mid-nineteenth century, at a time when their total population was comparatively low and land supply for both farming and cattle grazing was enough. But with rapid population growth in the twentieth century, the situation changed. A cultural difference between the Hutus and Tutsis had also aggravated the bitterness between the rival ethnic groups. This is due to their documented contrast in-regard-to their practice of â€Å"ecological adaptation†; such as the Hutu horticulture approach and Tutsi cattle pastoralism approach, within the context of a society over 90 per cent agricultural, and fast increasing rural population, with no major job opportunities, with dwindling food output and consumption for each person, the Hutu and Tutsi groups turned into natural adversaries. â€Å"Those Tutsi still engaged in cattle pastoralism wanted open ranges to graze their herds. In direct opposition, landless Hutu wanted those very lands, marginal as they may have been for agriculture, to build homesteads and to farm.† (Spalding, F, 2009) The consequence of land shortage saw more than half of Rwanda’s Tutsi population from the early 1960s to 1973, removed from their land, the land was vacated for Hutu settlement and cultivation. This move, had appeared to show that the problems faced by the Hutus could be resolved if the Tutsi were eradicated. For example, the Hutu farmers could have enough territory if the Tutsi were not there. A development during the 1980s, had again witnessed a population increase which had exceeded the amount of cultivable land. This saw Farmers’ overcompensate and increase food production however this had in effect led to soil exhaustion. This period also saw â€Å"over 50 per cent drop in the price of export coffee in 1989 adversely affected the 60 per cent of Rwandan farmers who cultivated coffee for cash income.† On the international level , the Rwandan export stcok market had disintegrated resulting poor farmers facing new levels of anguish. This made it easier for manipulation of the people by the political elite, who were looking for â€Å"extreme solutions to their country’s (and their own) growing insecurity†. It was argued by Des Forges that because of this occurrence, â€Å"those inciting Hutu civilians to murder Tutsi† were given rewards, this in effect gave the Hutus a permission to target and steal from the Tutsis and giving them hope of attaining land and businesses of the victims’. (Prunier, 1995) It is therefore made obvious that economic state of despair, and lack of hope, was a major cause and player in the readiness of thousands of poor farmers and urban residents â€Å"to fear the possibility of a Tutsi land- and jobs-grab under a victorious RPF regime; to be tempted by more specific hopes for land and jobs, or, more crudely still, to participate in order to grab a share of the victims’ property.† Thus this explanation provides a reason why the massacring of a race was possible and fast. The 1990–1992 war with the RPF contributed further to the devastation of Rwanda’s economy. It displaced thousands of farmers in the north, which also caused reductions in food and coffee production. (Spalding, 2009) A â€Å"Malthusian† theory of population growth and overpopulation being major causes of environmental degradation, hunger, poverty and war, which in turn lead to the hostility and subsequent killing in large scale of a targeted race, thus it is quite useful in helping to further explain the cause of the genocide in Rwanda. On the other hand an alternative view can be argued in criticizing the Malthusian explanation for the cause of the genocide in Rwanda must be considered. According to Boudreaux’s (2009:85) who provides some useful insights on why Rwanda is not ‘a modern day Malthusian Crisis’. She contends, no reason was provided as to why Rwandans were tied to their land. These are: One criticism was that due to Rwanda’s lack of a formal market, that would otherwise enable its people to put their land on the market and migrate to more urban districts, and also the government rules that restricted the movement of the populace from the countryside to city centers, â€Å"the government firmly controlled markets that limited entrepreneurial opportunities for people who might wish to leave farms, and a general pro-rural ideology imposed by the pre-genocide Habyarimana government† (Boudreaux 2009:85). She also argues that land disagreements was not the chief drive for hostility and genocide, against the Tutsis but the policies of the ruling party that limited selling of land, and lack of freedom of movement and work prospect and the fact that many people did not use family planning, which had the effect of rising population at uncontrollable rates. In addition to this carelessness in dealing with conflict, in a peaceful way especially the 1990–1992 war with the RPF were key contributing causes that led to the discontent of people in the country (Boudreaux 2009:85). Boudreaux also claimed that the problem of land scarcity is insufficient to give explanation of the slaughtering of a race which took place in Rwanda. As she points out those states such as Belgium and Swaziland which are about the same size as Rwanda never witnessed genocide. Therefore poverty and overpopulation are not the decisive causes of the genocide but they are amid the factors which made possible the conscription of militias of young people, ‘who had nothing to lose’, just before 1994 (Semelin 2005:26–30). Furthermore, African Rights (1995:6), also make claim that on the surface examination of the genocide would point the finger at â€Å"poverty, overpopulation, environmental and economic crisis for the tensions which led to the killings†. They also assert that the likely motive for the genocide rest within the socio-political structures that influenced people from sources of bitterness and hopelessness to committing to carrying out brutality (African Rights 1995:6). http://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajcr/article/viewFile/63313/51197 Ideological cause Another cause for the genocide was down to the ideological imposition on the population, persuading the people of Rwanda to accept an ideology that justified the ruling tutsis outlook and convinced them that their interests are being looked after. During 1960s when the Hutus gained control till 1994, the ideology promoted by the Hutu ruling elite was the Tutsi race were foreign intruders, who â€Å"could not be considered as citizens.† It was held that the were Hutu had been enslaved by the aristocratic invaders, now as they ruled, they proclaimed that they were now the only inhabitants with the right to live in the country. A Hutu-controlled government was now not only automatically legitimate but also ontologically democratic.’ This political ideology legitimised both the oppression of Tutsi group and the rule by some Hutu elites. Propaganda-media During the devastating genocide in Rwanda, the media in Rwanda had a major role in producing and maintaining an environment which validated the massacre that took place. Rwandan media’s promotion of hatred for Tutsis was magnified; the view that genocide of Tutsis would be the answer for the ethnic issues within Rwanda. Hutus who were once oppressed during the colonization had in essence attempted to be set free by becoming the oppressors themselves. (Thompson, 2007) Religion Religious point of views also contributed to the country’s deepening division problems. The majority of Rwanda’s population was Catholic. Despite Rwanda’s evident overpopulation, those in the church and government hierarchy not only refused to promote birth-control programmes; they actively opposed them. ‘Radical Catholic pro-life commandos raided pharmacies to destroy condoms with the approval of the Ministry of the Interior.’ it was suggests that the introduction of Christianity during colonization of Rwanda changed the Rwandan culture and helped to shape the mental culture that led to genocide. Rwandans have traditionally viewed people as family, friends, and third parties; but, as the influence of the bipolar Christian social identity increased, Christianity replaced the traditional religions as well as the traditional Rwandan view. Christianity led Rwandans to identify people as either friend or foe, especially when the people in question were Hutus or Tutsis. Semujanga suggests this gave rise to stereotypes and prejudices against Tutsis that labeled them as â€Å"power-hungry,† â€Å"dishonest,† and â€Å"the absolute enemy.† (Destexhe, 1995) Conclusion The genocide in Rwanda was a tragedy in which over 800 000 were killed. As with other genocides in the world, the one in Rwanda was complex with multidimensional causes and effects. In short, the ultimate cause of Rwandan genocide was the increasing imbalance in land, food and people that led to malnutrition, hunger, periodic famine and fierce competition for land to farm. Too many people were relying on rapidly diminishing amounts of arable land per capita for their subsistence level existences. Although it has been clearly argued that the causes of the genocide go beyond this and there is a deeper level which when analysed blames the manipulation by the ruling government at the time of the genocide and also the policies adopted by them goes further to explain the causes of the Genocide in Rwanda. References Destexhe, A, 1995. Rwanda and genocide in the twentieth century. 1st ed. London: Pluto Press Prunier, G, 1995. The Rwanda crisis: history of a genocide. 1st ed. London: C Hurst Co Spalding, F, 2009. Genocide in Rwanda. 1st ed. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group inc Thompson, A, 2007. The media and the Rwanda genocide. 1st ed. London: Pluto Press http://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajcr/article/viewFile/63313/51197 (last accessed 4th May 2011) http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-11108059 How to cite Analyze the causes of the Rwandan Genocide, Essay examples

The study of Massage/ Kinesiology Essay Example For Students

The study of Massage/ Kinesiology Essay There are many aspects on the study and meaning of kinesiology. Some of these ways are; applied kinesiology, kinesiology medicine research, and specialized and energy kinesiology. The study kinesiology and massage therapy is believed to go hand and hand. Many will say that without the proper knowledge of kinesiology and muscle movements, you can not provide a patent with all that is needed for a proper massage. As we approach new years, many individuals are increasing their concern in health. With the healing arts increasing in popularity, individuals dont understand the need for well-rounded therapist. Who are trained in the science of kinesiology, which includes the technique of massage to enable them to be proficient in their field. During the early 1900s, the practice of medical science became accepted in our society. Many of the Swedish massage was mingled in with those of medical doctors and medical practices. (A type of mechano-therapy emerged of a combination with other thera pist preformed by a physician or a nurses assistant.) Over time, these practices were absorbed into what would be general medicine. In the 1920s Masseurs and Masseuses had lost most of their market to doctors. They mainly found work with wealthy individuals who wanted a general, relaxing form of massage. After World War ll, a group of massage operators formed the American Association of Masseurs and Masseuses. This later became the forerunner of todays American Massage Therapy Association (AMTA). The goal of these associations is to raise the status of massage as a unique and effective treatment for healing. In the 1980s the AMTA was formed. The first thing they did was establish a code of ethics and change their titles from masseurs and masseuses to massage therapist. Now the profession of massage is enjoying renewed vigor and influence in alternative medicine. Recent trends have pointed the continuing promise and growth of massage therapy as a health care career. Applied kinesiology is the scientific study of muscular movement, physical activities and the anatomy, physiology, and mechanics of the movement of body parts. Kinesiology was first created by the American/Italian chiropractor Anthony Gil in Milano, Italy. This relatively new study has many different branches of specialized studies. Many similar goals of kinesiology are to: restore normal nerve functions, have normal internal functions, intervene early to prevent or (delay pathological conditions), to restore balance, correct gait impairment, and broaden your range of motion. The study of massage therapy with the study of kinesiology enhances a therapists ability to relieve many symptoms and conditions that may lead to inadequacies in an individuals muscular and nervous system. A therapist is able to take the person receiving the massage to a state of total relaxation. Many things can be helped through kinesiology and massage therapy, rather than by other medicines or surgeries. When an individual has asthma, kinesiologys is used to find out if there are any weaknesses in the lower back or leg muscles. The individuals would then strengthen these muscles to help their body to produce the right amount, or more, of chemicals used to relax their air passage so they may breathe better. A massage will a single touch of a finger tip will send a signal through the spinal cord to the brain in a split second letting your body relax and increase blood circulation and lymph through the tissues. This performance can help to lower heart rate, lower blood pressure, and because the brain to release endorphins, the brains natural opiate-like substances that promote stress reduction. Mainly, what connects kinesiology with massage therapist is the fact that they are very good with muscular manipulation. .u6395c2fb3bc3deb31fd0c11e50b48053 , .u6395c2fb3bc3deb31fd0c11e50b48053 .postImageUrl , .u6395c2fb3bc3deb31fd0c11e50b48053 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u6395c2fb3bc3deb31fd0c11e50b48053 , .u6395c2fb3bc3deb31fd0c11e50b48053:hover , .u6395c2fb3bc3deb31fd0c11e50b48053:visited , .u6395c2fb3bc3deb31fd0c11e50b48053:active { border:0!important; } .u6395c2fb3bc3deb31fd0c11e50b48053 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u6395c2fb3bc3deb31fd0c11e50b48053 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u6395c2fb3bc3deb31fd0c11e50b48053:active , .u6395c2fb3bc3deb31fd0c11e50b48053:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u6395c2fb3bc3deb31fd0c11e50b48053 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u6395c2fb3bc3deb31fd0c11e50b48053 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u6395c2fb3bc3deb31fd0c11e50b48053 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u6395c2fb3bc3deb31fd0c11e50b48053 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u6395c2fb3bc3deb31fd0c11e50b48053:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u6395c2fb3bc3deb31fd0c11e50b48053 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u6395c2fb3bc3deb31fd0c11e50b48053 .u6395c2fb3bc3deb31fd0c11e50b48053-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u6395c2fb3bc3deb31fd0c11e50b48053:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Child Abuse EssayThrough kinesiology you are able to look at many ways in which you are able to help a individuals dealing with any health related problem, and using this type of medicine, you are able to fix, or greatly reduce, pain or illnesses. Along with kinesiology, massage therapies work hand and hand in helping you develop a better life style and help aid in relieving your stress. Just from targeting weak muscles, with help from a professional, you can take care of all, or most, needs having to do with your bodies function. Kinesiology/massage therapy is a major contributor to health and wellness. All individuals use a form of kinesiology in their lives, whether fro m a sport or an activities involving muscles movement. We all have individual stress from activities not done right. Many individuals in the world turn to other relaxing ways to help relieve stress from their lives. In our society many, individuals have become health conscious. There are many individuals who go into health related jobs and careers to maintain there health. The quality of life is becoming a major issue in todays young adults, as well and older adults. Many studies have shown a large part of the worlds interests are growing in complimentary approaches to health and fitnesss. There is a worldwide amount of students who are exposed to unparalleled learning opportunities in hopes of becoming trained professionals with a strong foundation in the study of movement and activities from therioetical and applied aspects. You must understand that kinesiology is a muiltiscience. It may consist of anatomy, biomechanics, physiology, psychomotor behavior, and cultural factors. The word massage is an Arabic word meaning stroke. This is exactly what a massage therapist does. They stroke the body with various intense forces to correct inadequacies in a persons body and nerve system. Kinesiology is a way to stimulate your body and relieve many similar health related problems. These types of therapies are two of the leading heath care alternative medications in the United States. Not only has a massage helped an individuals well being, but also been proven to give them a better quality of life. This alternative medication involves many types of massage techniques to bring you to a total state of relaxation. Massage has been around for thousands of years. To many massage therapists and kinesiologist the physical touch with the actives of muscles exercise is conceded one gift of healing that humans possess naturally. In many studies the healing touch is proven to be much more than skin deep. Other forms of body work similar to massage are: shiatsu, Rolfing, refle xology, and reiki. American massage is similar to Swedish massage, although they do focus on different bodily work. The four basic types of massage are Swedish massage; being the most popular, involves stroking, kneading and applying friction to the upper muscles closer to the skin surface. This is extremely relaxing and helps to calm and relax nervous system. It will help to improve mobility ad flexibility. Trigger Point/Neuromuscular Massage; Involves a technique that uses finger pressures on specific painful areas in muscles to loosen and release built-up tensions. Deep Tissue; is a method to help stiff necks, sore shoulders, and tight hips by slow stroking and using deep finger pressures on areas of the body also helping those suffering from chronic muscle tensions. Sports massage; is mainly for assisting on athletics and fitness and involves many of the techniques from kinesiology to help rebuild weak or injured muscles. With these basics massage techniques mastered, you can sp ecialize in any field of massage. Kinesiology/massage therapists to not only help alleviate symptoms of soreness or muscles tension, but also develop plans for making lifestyles changes to prevent the systems and injuries form happening again. I believe that the medical aspects of life and quality in general are much more looked at today then they have been in past years. The work of massage along with the knowledge of kinesiology has improved our modern medicines and is one of the best impacts we have today for healthier lifestyles. The way physical touch in massage keeps your body and mind more together is on of the best ways to impact not only the person receiving the massage, but therapist also. If a person has never had a massage, and was to get on for the first time, I believe they will go more often, just because of the feeling you have after opposed to the feeling you had before. There is such a large amount of individuals who are looking for massage therapist. Having a natural talent will really benefit our society with a healthier and relaxing state of body and mind. I truly know that with massage/kinesiology you are able to open your bodily needs better ,and become more capable of enjoying the time you have with people you work with to make your own personality complete. These alternative medicines are the best ways to get the flow of energy moving to able yourself to feel like your own utopia.

Prp Theories free essay sample

HUMAN RESOUCE MANAGEMENT CONTENTS 1. Introduction1 2. Literature review2 2. 1Emergence of PRP2 2. 2Concept of PRP3 2. 3Relevant theories of PRP4 2. 3. 1Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Herzberg’s motivational theory4 2. 3. 2Equity theory in PRP5 3. Case study6 3. 1Case one: â€Å"Why Do Companies Use Performance-Related Pay for Their Executive Directors? † (Bender, 2004)6 3. 2Case two: â€Å"Evaluating performance-related pay for managers in the National Health Service† (Dowling Richardson, 1997)9 4. Analysis and Evaluation of PRP Theory in Business Organisations11 4. 1Comparison11 4. Contrast12 4. 3Performance related pay theory in business organizations13 4. 3. 1Motivates employees and improve their performance14 4. 3. 2Facilitates change to organizational cultural14 4. 3. 3Encourages the internalization of performance norms15 4. 4Problems of PRP in practice15 4. 4. 1Setting performance objectives16 4. 4. 2Assessment and ratings17 4. 4. 3Reward17 5. Conclus ion18 Reference19 Appendices21 1. Introduction Nowadays, Human Resource Management has become a strategic and coherent approach more than just managing the competencies and skills of employees in an organization. Armstrong (2002) noticed that HRM is much more focus on people not jobs, and so does business organization (Lewis, 1998). We will write a custom essay sample on Prp Theories or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Yet, people have been placed as an important role of business. To this extent, this essay will take a critical look at PRP which is based on people, and also considered as an essential and sensitive part of the HRM in organizations today. The paper starts with a brief review of recent literature which reports studies of PRP systems. It continues with describing two case studies related to the practical discrepancy to PRP theories. It goes on to our own independent critical analysis by comparing the PRP theories and practice in real world. Finally, there are conclusions being drawn about the appropriateness of PRP in a research environment. 2. Literature review 2. 1 Emergence of PRP Performance-related pay (PRP) emerged in the early 1980’s which attempts to relate individual performance at work to reward, aiming to motivate people ad develop performance-oriented cultures. Besides business organisations, some public institutions such as governments and universities also adopt PRP as an essential level for championing values. By comparing with other payment schemes, the PRP idea was whole-heartedly accepted by employers and played a much more positive effect on improving employees’ behaviour and organisations’ culture. According to the IPD research into performance management practices in 1997, 43 per cent of respondents had PRP; additionally, IBS research in 1998 showed that 61 per cent of answers satisfied their merit pay. These figures make it easy to see that PRP have been widely applied among organizations whatever businesslike or public facility (Armstrong, 2002). There are a variety of reasons why organization may applied PRP. Armstrong and Murlis (1994) stated that ‘it is right and proper for people to be rewarded in accordance with their contribution’. According to Pilbeam Colbridge (2002), there are a number of factors contributing to the emergence of PRP, which is identified in Figure 1. The Thatcher legacy and ‘enterprise’ values in the public sector Increasingly competitive environment and concern with employee performance Unitary and neo-unitary employment relations perspectives Reassertion of the ‘right to manage’ and increasing managerial control Influence of HRM demagogy Strategic integration of reward Trends towards individualism and the weakening of collectivism Emergence of PRP Figure 1: Factors contributing to the emergence of PRP (Pilbeam Corbridge, 2002) 2. 2 Concept of PRP ACAS (1990) defined individual performance-related pay (PRP) as â€Å"a method of payment where an individual employee receives increases in pay based wholly or partly on the regular and systematic assessment of job performance†. Additionally, Murlis (1996) claimed a significant distinction between the use of PRP to managing performance straight from the motivational stimulation of financial rewards (motivation) and the use of PRP to identify different levels of performance (reward). Based on these points, PRP can be commented as a combination of three key factors: motivation, performance and rewards, which work in two ways that motivating people to achieve expected performance; and rewarding these people who have achieved successful performance. Based on these three factors and their relationships, Pilbeam and Corbridge (2002) identified three stages for PRP application: Firstly, setting individual performance criteria by imposition, discussion or agreement firstly; secondly, assessing performance against individual performance criteria which established in stage1; thirdly, allocating pay to the assessment of performance by the exercise of managerial prerogative. 2. 3 Relevant theories of PRP 3. 2 2. 3. 1 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Herzberg’s motivational theory in PRP Maslow’s (1943, 1987) hierarchy of needs and the two factor theory of Herzberg (1959) indicated that pay can be considered as the most effective way to satisfy human’s need and further to motivate people to work more effectively, which means appropriate payment can stimulate employee to achieve successful performance that maximizing organisation’s benefits. Kessler and Purcell (1922) noted that employees will be easily motivated if there is a direct and close relationship between performance and reward. Therefore, PRP schemes could motivate the employees to increase their efforts to accomplish good performance. 2. 3. 2 Equity theory in PRP The Equity theory of Adams (1965) identified that employees have a strong need to be treated fairly which can be balanced by an equity between their input like work performance and output like rewarding. Compared to other types of pay like non-incentive pay which is based on collectively-negotiated rule, PRP associates employees’ productivity with their behaviour, rewarding employees for their successful performance, which is much more fair and reasonable. From these theories, we can see that PRP has brought a lot of potential benefits on improving HRM efficiency of organization. However, there are some shortages in PRP application in practice, which will be discussed in following two empirical case analyses. 3. Case study 3. Case one: â€Å"Why Do Companies Use Performance-Related Pay for Their Executive Directors? † (Bender, 2004) The paper focused on the issue of rewards to the listed companies’ executive director. There are variable ways to pay the rewards. Thus the performance-related pay introduced to this paper. At the beginning of this paper prior research introduces three types of theory to explain why companies use performance-related pay: agency theory , motivation theories (expectancy, equity), and institutional and legitimacy theories. Research designing utilized 12 companies’ interviews with 35 persons who stand in different positions. These interviews lasted for two years from December 2001 to May 2003. The interviews reflected different opinions about the influence of PRP. Some of the answers demonstrated PRP could motivate people to do work well: Alan Wilson, chief executive of Skandia UK regarded pay as a motivator; a HR director thought if everyone was paid the same base salary, they would always do the same. But a part of the respondents denied that PRP made an effort in motivating people in the work. A CEO argued that whether PRP works depends on which market you were in and also on when the people were on flat salaries. Also another respondent held a neutral idea on motivation of PRP to managers. A CEO categorized his employees into two types: one type chased money and the other worked for vocational interests and he realized that PRP was in a position to exert influence on those who chased money and not on employees worked for vocational interests. At the end of this part the author reaches the conclusion that lack of money is a de-motivator. Furthermore, interviews demonstrated some different ideas: a) Payment represents personal value of employees. The more contribution you have made, the more you can earn; b) Focus and fairness: according to the answers from interviewees, we can find that the company adopts PRP with the intention to make executives focus on their work efforts and fairness can improve employees’ performance; c) The need to provide alignment: here is a large number of factors influence performance in long-term and some of those cannot be observed currently; d) Other reasons to introduce performance-related pay: the requirement of government to adopt PRP and because of everybody has it so you has to have it; e) Problems with performance-related pay: a consultant pointed out that PRP system would bring unpredictable problems especially in long-term and it is difficult to select appropriate measure and tar gets. Market Practices Need for Legitimacy Need to Attract and Retain Implement a performance-related reward scheme Set performance measures and targets and use it to communicate strategy Directors’ actions and behaviours Business performance Performance-related award Monetary award Increased human capital for future negotiations Effect on individual’s self worth Figure 2: Why Companies use performance-related pay (Bender, 2004) In the final part, the author summarizes this case study according to three theories mentioned at the beginning of our description and draws figure 1 to show why companies performance-related pay. . 2 Case two: â€Å"Evaluating performance-related pay for managers in the National Health Service† (Dowling Richardson, 1997) This paper includes 4 sections. Section 1 explains the NHS system which means the performance related pay system for general management in 1989. Section 2 concludes the evaluation criteria and explanatory framework. PRP is introduced on the initiative of management. According to Cannel an d Wood’s survey, PRP could be introduced to overcome problems with existing systems, o encourage employees’ motivation, to improve communication with work force, to reduce problems of recruitment. Kessler suggested that the PRP might also be used to improve the fairness of a payment system, to reduce union influence and the importance of collective bargaining, can also give additional influence to line managers. The purpose of PRP is said to reward those manage who achieve a more than competent standard of work and motivate managers to perform better. Section 3 values the efficiency of the scheme and four measures are utilized to check the outcome of the scheme. Managers had to be assessed by their supervisors and receive reward based on their performance if they had finished targets set at the beginning of the year. In NHS, the HR department designed the PRP system in order to motivate managers. However, through self-reported data from the managers covered by the PRP system, a majority of respondents saw the scheme as having little or no effect on their motivation to do their jobs well. Also the authors did not found solid evidence to show that there are corresponding negative consequences of PRP. The initial examination of the raw data clearly suggests that the three elements of the scheme achieved different degrees of success. The objective-setting elements seemed to be widely supported. It could be observed that the schemes rewards were either not appropriate or not sufficiently attractive to act as a motivator. PRP include the way in which performance standards are set and monitored. Section 4 explains the effects of PRP in the NHS. About 85% respondents showed satisfaction with the objective –setting process. Furthermore, they also agreed that the challenge offered by the objective measures increase their determination to achieve their goal set before. On the other hand, there was also much critical comment on reward system such as subjectivity and appraiser bias. In addition, the PRP reward system was always cash limited. 4. Analysis and Evaluation of PRP Theory in Business Organisations 2 3 4. 1 Comparison Both of the two cases are involved in the topic of PRP, and focus on the effectiveness of PRP scheme. In addition, both of the researches partly agree that PRP is successful in some areas or in some extend, however, PRP is still not a perfect scheme due to various reasons. As what has been pointed out to be the problems in PRP, among all of the reasons mentioned in the papers, the objective-setting process has been pointed out in both of the researches, which indicates that this might be one of the key points which should be considered to improve PRP scheme. What is more, both of the papers mention that PRP is introduced in order to attract and retain executives with the potential of large earnings(Bender, 2004) and to improve the fairness of a payment system, to generate employee commitment (Dowling and Richardson, 1997), which can be considered as the positive points of PRP. 4. 2 Contrast The methods used in the research in the two cases are different. The case about PRP in the National Health Service used both quantitative and qualitative date from a questionnaire survey (Dowling and Richardson, 1997). While, the case conducted by Bender (2004) used qualitative date from an interview survey. Moreover, the perspectives used in the two papers also vary. As to the reasons why PRP is not more successful, Dowling and Richardson (1997) consider that there are three kinds of employees as being particularly important: firstly, those who think that the objective-setting process of PRP is coped with terribly; secondly, those who think the assessments are handled badly; lastly, those who believe that the rewards are not attractive enough to encourage their motivation. They hold the opinion that PRP has a less important influence on these people, which indicates that the improvement of objective-setting process, assessments and rewards might lead to improving the effect of PRP. While, the paper conducted by Bender (2004) indicates that the reason that PRP is not so successful is also related to the market in which directors are. Besides, salary and rewards are not the only recourses that could motivate managers. For instance, leisure can also play a significant role in the performance of managers. Additionally, PRP scheme has less important impact on those people who mainly work for vocational interests. Meanwhile, this paper (Bender, 2004) pays more attention to the reasons that PRP is used by companies. The writer points out some more reasons from interviews with directors other than the strong points of PRP which have been mentioned above. To be exactly, pay can be deemed as a symbol of worth and how much one can earn is associated with the self esteem for the executives. In the end, we can see from the two papers that PRP has developed successfully from 1997 to 2004 because what are reflected in the papers shows us that PRP has been used much more and been recognized in a wider range. As a result, we can conclude that with the use of PRP, this scheme has become and also will become more and more mature and contribute a lot to business organizations. 4. 3 Performance related pay theory in business organizations This section conducts analysis of two empirical cases critically and assesses the value of PRP theory and benefits it achieves in business organizations. The whole objective of pay related systems like the PRP and other HRM theories is obviously to bring or add to the value of business organizations. When we take a look at the first paper, it is obvious that on the average PRP increases an organization’s value. The following are the perceived benefits of the PRP theory: 4 5. 1 5. 2 5. 3 5. 4. 1 Motivates employees and improve their performance The human needs hierarchy theory of Maslow (1943, 1987) and the two factors theory of Herzberg (1959) indicate that in modern society satisfying human needs like payment is in a position to motivate people to work harder. Furthermore, in business organisations payment related to performance can stimulate people to accomplish the performance that organizations want. Kessler and Purcell (1992) claimed that if direct relationship exists between effort, performance and reward, employees would be motivated. PRP schemes act exactly as this direct link motivating the employees to increase their efforts. 5. 4. 2 Facilitates change to organizational cultural Kessler and Purcell (1992) argued that PRP refers to flexibility, dynamism, entrepreneurial spirit and careful allocation of resources, leading to a performance-orientated culture. Therefore, the introduction of PRP facilitates change in business organizations culture from collectively negotiated formula to individual contribution, which assists in solving problems, increasing value of organizations, and reducing problems of recruitment and retention. 5. 4. Encourages the internalization of performance norms â€Å"PRP can encourage the internalization of the organisation’s goal or norms of behaviour among the employees of the organization† (Geary, 1992). In the implementation of PRP, the organisation’s norms of behaviour can be enhanced by rewarding congruous work effects and by punishing incongruous performance. Th ereby, it strengthens management control and clarifies job roles within organizations. 5. 4 Problems of PRP in practice Theoretically, PRP can produce many benefits for organizations, which have been demonstrated above. However, there are always gaps between theories and practice of PRP. In this part data from the NHS case will be utilized to illustrate some problems of PRP. Figure 3 above shows that only 2 percent respondents consider PRP as the motivator for them to work harder while respondents with opposite idea accounts for 45 percent. Also 67 percent respondents embrace neutral idea on the question of whether PRP scheme affect motivation to do the job and 77 percent respondents did not feel more co-operation after the introduction of PRP scheme. Question| Negative Positive| Does PRP have effect on your motivation to do the job well? 2| 3| 67| 25| 4| You consciously work harder because of the PRP scheme. | 45| 26| 17| 10| 2| You focus on PRP objectives rather than other activities. | 34| 34| 20| 10| 2| PRP changes co-operation level among colleagues| 2| 12| 77| 8| 1| Figure 3: PRP in the National Health Service (Dowling and Richardson, 1997) 5. 5. 4 Setting performance objectives It is essential for organizations to set up clear and measurable objectives so that the behaviour of employees can be guided by objectives. However, imposition and narrowness of PRP in objective-setting could lead to failure of the implementation. What’s more, short term approach stemming from narrow and misleading objectives could make employees ignore intangible aspects and long-term tasks. Therefore, the weakness of PRP in objective-setting could discourage behaviour that is not financially rewarded and prevent business organizations from functioning well. 5. 5. 5 Assessment and ratings Assessment and ratings are indispensable stage of PRP system. In practice, two crucial elements during these processes, scales of ratings and fair appraisals made by managers are difficult to achieved, which make employees not satisfied with ratings given to them. As Belfield and Marsden (2002) argued that the use of PRP will do more harm than good if the right monitoring environment is not in place. 5. 5. 6 Reward PRP regards reward as the motivator for employees to work hard, which is often not the case in practice. Maslow’s theory of the Hierarchy of Needs (1943) stated that payment is not the only need of human beings. Besides payment, people also have mental requirements such as belongingness needs, esteem needs and self-actualization. 5. Conclusion After critical analysis and assessment we can finally reach the conclusion that in theory PRP is in a position to provide business organizations certain benefits such as motivating employees, improving their performance, attracting executives, facilitating change in organizational culture and encouraging the internalization of performance norms. However, due to imposition and narrowness in objective-setting, unfairness and inaccuracy in assessment and ratings, and diversification of human needs, theoretical benefits of PRP cannot be reached. Therefore, more attention should be paid on the gap between HRM theories and their application in practice so that HRM theories can assist business organizations in increasing their values. Reference ACAS, 1990. Appraisal-related Pay. London: ACAS. Adams, J. S. , 1965. Inequity in social exchange. In: Berkowitz, L. ed. , Advances in experimental social psychology. New York: Academic Press, 267-299. Armstrong, M. , 2002. Employee reward. 3rd ed. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. Armstrong, M. ; Murlis, H. , 1994. Reward Management, London: Kogan Page. Belfield, R. ; Marsden, D. , 2002. Matchmaking: the influence of monitoring environments on the effectiveness of performance pay systems. Centre for Economic Performance, London School of Economics and Political Science, London, UK. Bender, R. , 2004. Why Do Companies Use Performance-Related Pay for Their Executive Directors? Corporate Government, 12(4), pp. 521-533. Dowling, B. ; Richardson, R. , 1997. Evaluating performance-related pay for managers in the National Health Service. The Intematioruil Joumal of Human Resource Management, 8(3), pp. 348-366. Herzberg, F. , 1959. The Motivation to work, New York: John Wiley. Geary, J. F. , 1992. Pay, control and commitment: linking appraisal and reward. Human Resource Management Journal, 2(4), pp. 36-54. Kessler, I. ; Purcell, J. , 1992. Performance-related pay: objectives and application. Human resource management Journal, 2(3), pp. 16-23 Lewis, P. , 1998. Management performance-related pay based on evidence from the financial services sector. Human Resource Management Journal, 8(2), pp. 66-77 Maslow, A. H. , 1943. A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, pp. 370-396. Maslow, A. H. , 1987. Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper ; Row. Murlis, H. , 1996. Pay at the Crossroads. London: Institute of Personnel Development. Pilbeam, S. ; Corbridge, M. , 2002. People Resourcing: HRM in Practice. 2nd ed. Harlow: FT Prentice Hall. Appendices Tow papers: Bender, R. , 2004. Why Do Companies Use Performance-Related Pay for Their Executive Directors? Corporate Government, 12(4), pp. 521-533. Dowling, B. ; Richardson, R. , 1997. Evaluating performance-related pay for managers in the National Health Service. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 8(3), pp. 348-366.

Cherokee essays

Cherokee essays The Cherokee Indians were one of the most prosperous and progressive tribes in the country. They were also the largest tribe in the southeastern part of the United States. The Cherokee were a branch off the Iroquois Nation. The language they spoke was Iroquian. They got their name from Chelokee meaning people of different speech, and in their language they called themselves Aniyunwiya meaning principle people. A Cherokee named, Sequoyah, invented a system for the Cherokees to write their language. There were 86 characters in his syllabary and each were based on individual syllables in the words. Anybody who could speak Cherokee could also read and write it after learning the 86 symbols. Their native territory included portions of present Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama. Their population was estimated around 22,500. They lived in small communities, usually located near the river bottoms. Their homes were wooden frames covered with woven vines and saplings plastered with mud. Each community had a council house where ceremonies and tribal meetings were held. The council house was seven-sided to represent the seven clans of the Cherokee: bird, paint, deer, wolf, blue, long hair, and wild potato. Each tribe elected 2 chiefs. A peace chief who counseled during peaceful times and a war chief who made decisions during times of war. Towns classified themselves as red or white at any given point in time. A red town was in a state of war, under leadership of young men. A white town was at peace, with old men at the helm. (Bender 16). Cherokee was a matriarchy. The children took the clan of the mother and the relatives were traced through th e mothers family. Women had an equal say in the affairs of the tribe. Women could also be peace and war leaders depending on their standing ...

Life, Liberty and the pursuit of happiness Essay

Life, Liberty and the pursuit of happiness - Essay Example He had a strong vision for the United States of America to this end and envisioned a country in which respect for the rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness was the order of the day. No wonder, his draft of the Declaration of Independence stated, We hold these truths to be sacred & undeniable; that all men are created equal & independant, that from that equal creation they derive rights inherent & inalienable, among which are the preservation of life, & liberty, & the pursuit of happiness. (Boyd 438) The independence of the United States has seen many changes to the way life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness have been treated. While the citizens of the U.S. enjoy these three natural rights to a greater extent than they did before independence, the country is yet to fully realize Jefferson’s dream for the country. This paper will analyze the extent to which the rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness are respected in the U.S. today. Before engaging in a discourse on the subject of the rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, it is important that the three subjects (life, liberty, and happiness) are defined. Life basically is the characteristic that living things have and that non living objects do not have as noted by Alberts (45). In other words, it is what distinguishes objects that have self-sustaining processes from those that lack them. Biologically, living objects or organisms have the capacity to grow, reproduce, respond to stimuli, maintain homeostasis and metabolize (Alberts 47). On the other hand, non-living objects have no capacity to perform these processes. When life is taken off an organism, the organism is considered to be dead or non-living. Liberty, on the other hand, is the quality that one enjoys when they can personally control their actions as noted by Westbrooks (134). In other words, liberty has a lot to do with

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HIS 122 - Essay Example ïÆ' ¨ This book discusses the theology, history, and political theories surroundings the Declaration of Independence. Several published writings and letters of Franklin, Jefferson, and others are presented in the book. The interesting thing about the book is how it explored the idea that the men who fought for, authored, and amended the Declaration of Independence did not have establishing a Christian nation in mind. The author presented data showing that the values of the Orthodox Christian Church are all rejected by Thomas Jefferson. Also, it explores on the concept that equality, and not slavery, is the purpose of the Declaration. Dershowitz presented data supporting the idea that Jefferson rejects the concept of slavery and supports the â€Å"secular humanist† concept. It is controversial, challenging, and disturbing, because it requires readers to rethink their opinions regarding the Declaration ïÆ' ¨ Of all the books reviewed, this is considered the most interesting exploration on the different sides of diplomacy during the American Revolution. It provides an easy and interesting read, thus giving the book a wide array of target readers. It catches the interest even of a general reader, yet provides well-researched data that will also interest any historian. The diplomatic history of the American Revolution is presented in several angles, including America’s diplomatic ties with France, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Russia, and Spain. ïÆ' ¨ Simple and straightforward, the book discusses a lot of unfinished businesses caused by the American Revolution. Mainly, there are two very interesting articles that provide a great eye-opener for any reader: â€Å"Two Republics in a Hostile World† by Jonathan Dull, and â€Å"The Ambiguities of Power† by J.R. Pole. The book, particularly these two articles, can be compared to the ideas presented in the book by Dershowitz --- it makes one rethink of their personal opinions on the

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Is the military-industrial complex a result of the reliance of the capitalist economy on military production as a stabiliser of - Essay Example President Eisenhower used the term to refer to the close ties between the military and industrial sectors. The origin of military industrial complex can be traced during World War II period, when many companies came into contact with the state. Majority of the companies started manufacturing armaments and tanks for the government on a large scale. During the world war, the Department of Defense granted many private companies military contracts in aerospace and the production of military weapons, tanks and vehicles. The US government was not producing weapons like other countries, but contracted private companies to supply the needed military material. As a result of the cold war tensions, many con-agglomerates won valuable defense contracts. This contributed to the rise of stock prices in the year 1960 (Geisst 2006, p.272). The private companies relied on government contracts to get their revenue. The government also appointed high rank officials in the military as executives and con sultants. This gave rise to a close relationship between the military and private corporations, which received a lot of criticism. In the recent years, the military-industrial complex terminology has fallen out of use. However, it is still used in reference to the relationship between governments and armaments producers, who spend enormous amount of budget on the defence sector (Geisst 2006, p. 273). Many governments prefer to buy military equipments and supplies from local private companies at an additional cost. This is what yields the label military-industrial complex, which is an established relationship between the defense establishments and the domestic industries. Military hardware accounts for the largest expenditure on total government equipment expenditure. Contracts awarded by department of defense provide suppliers with competitive advantage in financial, technological and commercial terms. The reliance on supplies and armor produced by a state own factory is thought to reduce the dependence on private supplies and the vulnerability of a nation to arms embargo. The production of arms by government can help reduce overpricing, abuse and long term dependence on foreign arm producers and private corporations in a country directly (Schiavo-Campo and Hazel 2008, p.271). The United States has become the powerful and incontestable power that has emerged from the centuries of the development of capitalistic economies. The US takes a center stage on the international economic structure, which relies on the economies of the underdeveloped counties. The U.S internal economy is tied to the world economic system through its continued dependency on its military expenditures and its extended exploitation of third world countries. The emergency of U.S as a world power dates back in mechanical production and technological innovation in the years before 1914. Before the year 1914, America had made access to its expansive natural resources and exploited them, which s timulated foreign trade outlets. This also led to the establishment of a flexible protective tariff system making U.S to benefit from financial assistance from older nations. This made it possible for U.S to develop a good network of transport and communication. During the World war I, U.S business increased as it move in to take advantage of the markets in the post war era (Cannon and Emile 2011, p.15). During this time, Latin America formed a main target for U.S because it was

Psychology Essays Amnesic Syndrome Amnesia

Psychology Essays Amnesic Syndrome Amnesia Amnesic Syndrome Amnesia Hypothetical amnesic syndrome single case intervention: Clive Wearing Amensia Amnesic Syndrome Amnesia is a general, classically used term essentially to describe the partial or total loss of memory. Due to the complexity of human memory functioning, several different types of amnesia exist, in particular, Amnesic Syndrome (A.S.) which, in its most coherent, is a cluster of amnesic symptoms. Amnesic syndrome is characterised by the permanent memory impairment which can occur in anterograde form the syndrome’s defining feature and retrograde form. Unlike general amnesic condition, the diagnostic origin of A.S. excludes degenerative disorders, for example Parkison’s; transient amnesias; and psychogenic disorders. The aetiology of A.S. include those brought on by (direct or indirect) injury to the brain and damage to any number of neuroanatomical locations responsible for memory functioning, namely subcortical areas the diencephalon, a major region of the brain that includes the third ventricle, thalamus, hypothalamus, and pituitary gland; and also cortical areas covering the medial surfaces of the temporal lobe, especially the hippocampus. Understanding the effects of this damage is possible in no small part to using the modular memory system approach and observing the pattern of preservation and loss in other words, what the patient is and is not capable of. It is understood that long term memory (LTM) is structured as to distinguish declarative memory of what we know to be as ‘fact’ from less explicitly accessible memory functioning such as those implicitly stored and that which is not pertaining to factual information, referred to as non-declarative memory. Aggleton Brown (1999) reported that both the subcortical and cortical locations, as mentioned above, are components of the same memory system concerned with the explicit, declarative memory. This declarative memory is made up of the subcategories episodic personal events one experiences; and semantic relating to vocabulary, language ability and object recognition. It is therefore clear that the damage suffered to part or all of these areas of the brain would largely affect the declarative memory of a patient, whilst leaving the implicit, non-declarative memory relatively unimpaired. This is true in cases of both anterograde and retrograde amnesic syndrome. There are also several non memory related characteristics of amnesia which appear in A.S., degrees of which depend on the origin of the syndrome, for instance the location of injury and which parts of the brain are affected. Characteristics include orientation, intellectual deficit and confabulation. Confabulation, sometimes referred to as ‘islands of confabulation’, describes the attempts made to rationalise memories (or voids in memory) in order to make sense to the self and others, which may involve the production of false information. Single Case: Clive Wearing Clive Wearing is considered by many to be the most sever case of amnesia. Once a renowned and eminent musician and musicologist, Clive was struck by an inflammatory brain infection herpes encephalitis, in March of 1985. An initial CT and subsequent MRI scan reported major and significant damage to the left temporal lobe, also extending into the inferior and posterior frontal lobe as well as damage to the medial side of the right temporal lobe. This was accompanied by indications of involvement of the left lateral ventricle and third ventricle part of the diencephalon, along with the almost complete destruction of the hippocampus. It is believed that these areas of damage are the cause of several behaviours Clive Wearing exhibited and continues to do so today. It is well reported that Clive (CW) has severe episodic memory dysfunction, resulting in retrograde amnesia for virtually the whole of his adult life and much of his childhood along with anterograde amnesia demonstrated by his incapacity for explicit learning. CW has become synonymous for his moment to moment consciousness whereby the period of seconds is lost in a perceptual time void and where perceived information is lost as soon as his eyes close quite literally in a blink only to be confronted with the experience of a completely new ‘awakening’ repeated many times. CW’s semantic memory, though generally preserved in A.S., showed evidence of impairment as he is unable to produce object names, define words and comprehend written material, instead lending himself towards confabulation. CW’s pattern of deficits in declarative memory can be explained by the neurological damage that he suffered. The major damage to the hippocampus (relatively destroying it) is the most likely cause of the severity of his amnesia, whereas the retrograde amnesia is attributed to the diencephalic damage, and semantic memory impairment adheres to the more widespread temporal lobe damage. Functioning and Indications for Intervention Contrary to CW’s deficit in declarative memory, his non declarative memory is left relatively unimpaired. There are many reports of CW’s implicit memory functioning, most notably his procedural memory for reading, playing, conducting and singing music which are practically preserved. Clive has, on more than one occasion, denied seeing a piece of music or even playing the piano, only to (when directed), sit down and play the piece and add â€Å"I remember this one†. Additional evidence for CW’s implicit memory comes from the first few years of his condition where he began to abbreviate his questions, he would only need to ask his wife ‘How long?’ to be understood as to what was meant, ‘How long have I been ill?’ suggesting an awareness, on some level, that the question has been asked before, as well as the knowledge of the fact that she knows what it means. Evidence for implicit learning comes from the report after eighteen months of his new home, where he has been taken for daily walks to feed the ducks, now asks ‘do the ducks want their tea?’ when prompted to put on his coat, ceasing to ask how long he has been ill a seven-year obsessive habit. Though his apparent disorientation, he has also gained other (purely) implicit memories like the layout of his residence where he is able to go to the bathroom, kitchen and dining room unsupervised. However, if he stops, gets distracted, or thinks en route he becomes lost. And though not able to describe his residence, his wife Deborah has reported how he will undo his seat belt and offer to get out and open the gate as they draw near. He is unable to explicitly identify the locations but is capable of action. The role of music in CW’s implicit learning is certainly an interesting one, as not only is his procedural memory relatively unimpaired but he is also capable, providing someone puts the music before him to get him into action, of learning and practicing new pieces. It is also reported that he also hummed something which he had not played for half an hour. This discovery is of great relevance to the following section on intervention as it suggests that this is could be down to rehearsal of it subvocally, perhaps reflecting use of the phonological loop process in memory encoding. Broca’s area is a relatively contained section in the inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe and is namely responsible for the production of speech and sounds. There is little evidence to suggest of a deficit in CW’s ability to produce speech and sound and therefore any relative damage to this area, which in turn enables the seeming subvocal rehearsal that has been reported. Seeing as CW appears to have some phonological functioning and fairly preserved implicit memory, this seems a rational starting point for rehabilitative intervention. Proposed Intervention Whereas in previous clinical approaches where rehabilitation was usually based on a broad range of therapies (CBT, psychotherapy, etc), neuropsychological therapy tackles small areas either to test theories or to increase the understanding of a particular subject area. In the case CW, it is the impairment experienced involving disorientation that will be the focal point of this intervention. The intervention will operate at the level of impairment the specific problem being disorientation. In terms of the intervention mechanism restoring or reinstating the original function this seems very unlikely to be possible. The alternative therefore, is to instate an intervention mechanism that will utilise and develop existing capacities with the use of external aids and strategies to overcome the problem. Implicit learning of routes through basic repetition would not be recommended in this case. Instead, it would be preferable to use the available existing/surviving capacities (i.e. subvocal rehearsal and procedural memory) as this approach, if sufficiently effective, could be transferred for other possible applications in different situations. CW’s procedural memory of music lends itself extremely neatly to the notion of journeys and routes due to its formulative and progressive nature. CW’s wife Deborah speaks of the â€Å"momentum of music† where it is said that music, much like any route has steps, phrases, beginnings and ends (Wearing and Wilson, 1995). In an article, author and neurologist Oliver Sacks (2007) provides a compelling narrative of this momentum indicating the link of memory and melody: There is not a process of recalling, assembling, recategorizing, as when one attempts to reconstruct or remember an event or a scene from the past. We recall one tone at a time, and each tone entirely fills our consciousness yet simultaneously relates to the whole. It is similar when we walk or run or swim—we do so one step, one stroke at a time, yet each step or stroke is an integral part of the whole. Indeed, if we think of each note or step too consciously, we may lose the thread, the motor melody. (Sacks, 2007) In normal automatisation of procedural information which can range from making a cup of tea to driving a vehicle, the memory trace of each encounter is encoded and strengthened with each practise so that in future cases relevant information is retrieved quickly. In the case of CW this report suggests that a method of auditory mnemonic reduction encoding be used, set up with vanishing retrieval cues, gradually removed so as to encourage the strengthening of the mnemonic information in an errorless learning environment. Encoding with visual and auditory mnemonics has been shown to be very effective in the development of creating links and encoding memorable retrieval cues (e.g. Burrows Solomon, 1975; Sharps Price, 1991; Haan et al., 2000) and provides a supported approach to the proposal intervention. The use of vanishing cues enables a ‘length’ of information to be divided into a number of relevant cues that are subsequently and gradually removed, thus resulting in a scope of learnt information which may require very few or even no recall cues. Errorless learning has been effective in a number memory-impairment cases (e.g. Tailby Haslam, 2003; Page et al., 2006), where errorless learning employs a 100% correct response technique in strengthening memory traces. Single Case Design Proposal Neuropsychological intervention of any sort would usually naturally happen once the patient starts to demonstrate gaining a sense of normal functioning, that is after the initial period of spontaneous recovering has occurred, as initiating intervention during this time of innate recovery is not suggestible results may show absent or false improvement. In the case of CW however, this is not an area of concern. The intervention will operate with auditory mnemonics and vanishing cues. It will be a tri-level multiple baseline design as to assess its effectiveness across and between situations. Three routes / journeys will be decided upon in relation to CW’s most important or habitual preferences. For the purpose of this proposal the three routes will be that from his room: (a) to the dining room (b) to the hall the location of his piano and (c) outside via fire escape route. The initial phase of the intervention will be reporting the baseline measurement for each route. This will be the amount of time it takes CW to get from his room to the each of the destinations, observations will also be made as of any experiences of disorientation and if so note down where along the route and how often they occur, using several measures maximise the stability of the assessment as they will be compared with the results of the intervention phase. The measurement phase will continue for 1 month before the first-level intervention is employed. The second phase will start with the implementation of the first-level intervention for the first situation (a). The route that CW takes will be marked off using posters showing a coloured symbol (e.g. a green triangle) at significant points. CW will also have accompanied with him a device that allows him to play a single relatively short melody, one that he is familiar with. This will then be set to repeat, although it is assumed that one piece played from start to finish should last for more than sufficient time than it takes him to reach his destination in this case the dinning room. During this time CW is encouraged to hum or sing the melody out loud. This first-level intervention for the first situation will continue for 2 months and measurements will be taken following the same concept as those in the baseline phase. Following this will be the second-level intervention where the visual cues (green triangles) are gradually removed in suitable order so that there are no significantly unequal ‘gaps’ in cues along the route. CW will at this time still be encouraged to play and hum to the chosen melody along the route. This phase will be carried out over a total of 2 months, again, whilst measurements are taken. The third-level intervention will entail CW not having access to the melody playing device, however he will still be encouraged to hum or sing what could be referred to at this point as the ‘dinning room melody’. Measurements will be carried out as previously done. This stage will continue for 1 month and then conclude the second phase of the intervention. After which the additional two routes will be initiated in sequence following the example of the first situation. A summarised list of the programme will look as follows. Phase 1 Multiple baseline recording Measurements are taken across all situations (length: 1 month) Phase 2 Intervention of first situation (a) to dinning room Level 1 melody played with cues (length: 2 months) Level 2 cues gradually removed (length: 2 months) Level 3 melody device removed (length: 1 month) Phase 3 Intervention of second situation (b) to hall Level 1 melody played with cues (length: 2 months) Level 2 cues gradually removed (length: 2 months) Level 3 melody device removed (length: 1 month) Phase 4 Intervention of third situation (c) fire escape route Level 1 melody played with cues (length: 2 months) Level 2 cues gradually removed (length: 2 months) Level 3 melody device removed (length: 1 month) Phase 5 Assessment of results The appendix includes graphs that represent three possible outcomes of the intervention. The first in Appendix 1 demonstrates a successful intervention, evaluation of which will be discussed below. The second in Appendix 2 illustrates a clearly unsuccessful intervention whereas the third in Appendix 3 illustrates the possible results of a temporary positive effect of intervention followed by a decline in improved performance. Signs that the intervention is successful will be a significant improvement in performance compare with baseline measurements. That is not necessarily to say that route-taking will be quicker, but that incidence of disorientation would have been significantly reduced. The proposed evaluation of the intervention will consist of checking whether it has been successful in its aim and the reasons behind this outcome. If an improvement has been demonstrated it must be examined as to the source of change. Sources of change vary in terms of the circumstances of the case, for instance spontaneous recovery and innate brain recovery at this stage of the condition is highly unlikely and would have been captured in baseline measurements. General treatment effects i.e. what happens in CW’s home such as care and interactions are also another source of change which, in other cases may be an affect. The length of the intervention may allow changes in circumstance to affect performance. Major changes of this sort are unlikely however it would still be advisable to report any relevant changes. If an improvement has not been affirmed the intervention will be seen as not effective. This doesn’t necessarily that the theoretical basis was at fault, the judgement of available case information may not have been sufficient. Problematic methodology could also be a cause. If the phases (and containing levels of aid) of the intervention were not carried out for long enough, or correctly the effectiveness of the proposed intervention would be compromised. Providing the intervention was successful and improvement was made, it would be critical to examine the genuine extent to which the person’s life had changed for the better. This could take the form of improved functioning, increased independence and improved sense of well-being. It would also be relevant to examine the capacity to generalise the principle for application in other situations. The nature of the proposed multiple baseline design allows, on demonstration of positive results, that the intervention could be applied to similar situations and even for use in other cases of similar patients with A.S. References Aggleton, J. P., and Brown, M. W. (1999) Episodic memory, amnesia, and the hippocampal-anterior thalamic axis. Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 22 (4). pp. 425-440 Burrows, D. and Solomon, B. A. (1975). Parallel scanning of auditory and visual information. Memory and Cognition. 3 (4). pp. 416-420. Haan, E. H. F., Appels, B., Aleman, A. and Postma, A. (2000). Inter-and intra-modal encoding of auditory and visual presentation of material: Effects on memory performance. The Psychological Record. 50 (3). pp. 577-86. Page, M., Wilson, B. A, Shiel, A., Carter, G. and Norris, D. (2006) What is the locus of the errorless-learning advantage? Neuropsychologia. 44 (1). pp. 90-100 Sacks, O. (2007) The Abyss; A Neurologists Notebook. The New Yorker. New York. 83 (28). pp.100. Sharps, M. J. and Price, J. L. (1991). Auditory imagery and free recall. The Journal of General Psychology. 119 (1). pp. 81-87. Tailby. R. and Haslam C. (2003) An investigation of errorless learning in memory-impaired patients: improving the technique and clarifying theory. Neuropsychologia. 41 (9). pp. 1230-40. Wilson, B.A. and Wearing, D. (1995) Prisoner of Consciousness: A state of just awakening following Herpes Simplex Encephalitis, In Campbell, R. Conway, M. Broken Memories: Neuropsychological Case Studies. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 15-30